Phytoremediation to improve eutrophic ecosystem by the floating aquatic macrophyte, water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.) at lab scale
Abstract
In this investigation, the ability and effectiveness of the aquatic macrophyte, Pistia stratiotes L. to improve the quality of eutrophic waters were studied at a lab scale by testing across four lake water samples. The removal of salts, solids and improving physiochemical properties including pH, DO, EC, TDS, Turbidity and NaCl concentration of water were monitored. In treatment with the Aquatic Plant (AP), a 100% survival rate of the species was observed without any visible symptoms of toxicity in the biomass. The extensive root system of the plant as well as the body biomass improved water quality after one week of treatment as determined by a marked decrease in Turbidity, TDS, EC and NaCl and with an increase in pH and DO levels. The DO increased many folds over 168 h or 7 days after treatments and served as a useful indicator of water quality. Considerable variation percentages (either reduction or increment) were observed in different parameters treated with the phytoremediator. The study findings indicate that the aquatic macrophyte has a significant potential for improving water quality parameters by removing pollutants from eutrophic lake water bodies.
Introduction
Water is a very important abiotic resource of our environment which is needed by all forms of life. The quality of water worldwide has been affected negatively because of the overgrowth of the population, unplanned urbanization, fast industrialization, different human activities and unskilled utilization of natural water resources. Modernization and over-population are increasingly posing serious concerns for surface waters like river, lakes and other water bodies, particularly for sewage disposal and contamination (Bhateria & Jain, 2016). Whilst there is an increase in urbanization, industrialization and population explosion (Nahar et al., 2011), the demand for water assets is expanding daily and thereby leading to serious contamination of surface as well as groundwater. The primary sources of water pollution are toxic effluents, sewage and other wastes, agricultural discharges, industrial wastes from chemical and power generation industries.
On the other hand, aquatic macrophytes have a high potential for phytoextraction or absorption of organics, salts, solids and metals in their tissues (Rezania et al., 2015) and purify the contaminated water bodies. Macrophytes are important in reducing the pollution level of aquatic ecosystems as the plants in phytoremediation accumulate contaminants through their roots and then transfer the contaminants in the aboveground part of their body (Sharma et al., 2015). Moreover, macrophytes also secrete biopolymers from their roots, which assist in flocculation. Non-settling and colloidal particles are also removed, at least partially, by bacterial growth which results in the removal of some colloidal solids and the microbial decay of other organic pollutants (Abbasi & Ramasami, 1999).
Phytoremediation is an emerging technology that uses green flora to remove or inactivate harmful environmental pollutants. Among the native species, invasive species are recently being utilized in tropical and subtropical areas to remediate the contaminants of the water system due to their high adaptive and hyperaccumulation capability (Patel & Sahoo, 2020). Compared to native plants, the invasive plants show much higher nutrient removal efficiency with their high nutrient uptake capacity and thereby helping in the water purification process (Prabakaran et al., 2019). Aquatic macrophytes, such as water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), and duckweed (Lemna minor) can not only be effectively used to capture pollutants from polluted waters and wastewater sources (Alam and Hoque, 2017, Odjegba and Fasidi, 2004, Olguín et al., 2017, Qin et al., 2016) but also to produce bioenergy (Nahar and Sunny, 2019, Nahar, 2012, Sunny, 2011).
Globally, there are threats to urban water bodies. Lakes, as urban water bodies in a developing country like Bangladesh, are suffering because of water pollution. Water bodies have historically played a critical role in the growth and development of human society. However, various anthropogenic activities have paradoxically forced these water bodies to reach a state of degradation in recent times (Bhateria & Jain, 2016). As an invasive plant, Pistia stratiotes L. is a floating macrophyte with great bioaccumulation potential and tolerance of ecological factors, however, it is mostly rejected due to its unusual characteristics (Pandey, 2012). Testing the ability to take-up, sequester and degrade pollutants (Fletcher et al., 2020) is an important step prior to the implementation of phytoremediation in natural freshwaters, and water lettuce has the ability to remove water pollutants with efficiency as well as higher survival rate while withstanding higher levels of pollution (Sooknah & Wilkie, 2004). In this lab-scale study, the invasive species, water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.) is examined to quantify the benefits it may offer in terms of advanced phytoremediation in aquatic ecosystems such as improving lake water quality in Dhaka, Bangladesh
Materials and methods
The phytoremediation experiment was conducted in the laboratory of the Department of Environmental Science and Management, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Pollutant load of eutrophic water was determined before and after treatment by the growing aquatic plant, water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.) to evaluate the phytoremediation potential. Water samples were collected from four lakes of Dhaka City. This study was carried out from 6th October to 13th October 2019, to explore the potential and ability of the macrophyte as a phytoremediation agent for solid and salts removal from the collected samples. Thus, the physical and chemical properties of water samples as well as the removal of pollutants were investigated by the growing plant. A 7-day (168 h) experiment was performed under a controlled environment in the laboratory. Different water quality parameters were measured and analyzed.
Collection of water samples
In this study, water samples from shallow depth were collected from Uttara Lake (Sample A), Dhanmondi Lake (Sample B), Gulshan Lake (C) and Hatirjheel Lake (Sample D) of Dhaka City, Bangladesh (Fig. 1). Samples were obtained by dipping plastic bottles at the four places across the surface of each lake water and then mixed. The mentioned water bodies accumulated wastewater from the surrounding urban community and became eutrophic. In this study, water lettuce (P. stratiotes) was planted in the collected water samples using a1000-ml beaker.
Collection of aquatic macrophyte
To carry out a Floating Aquatic Macrophyte based Treatment (FAMT) of eutrophic water, water lettuce (P. stratiotes L.) was selected as a test aquatic macrophyte. Pistia stratiotes (Kingdom: Plantae, Division: Magnoliophyta, Class: Liliopsida, Order: Arales, Family: Araceae, Genus: Pistia, Species: Pistia stratiotes L.) was collected from a freshwater pond that had no connection with domestic or industrial discharges (Fig. 2).
The adolescent plants of water lettuce were collected from the local pond located at Purbachal, Dhaka. The plants used for phytoremediation experiments were transported to the laboratory and rinsed with tap water and then placed in an earthen tub with lab tap water and exposed to sunlight beside the widow of the lab for 3–5 days to let them adapt. The aquatic macrophyte used in the present study were cultured in the laboratory by placing in beakers (1 L) with the lake waters collected from the sampling sites and were kept at a temperature of 25 °C under 14/10 h light and dark photoperiod in the beaker.
Instrumentation
The pH of water samples was monitored using a pH meter (Griffin pH meter, Model No. 40) and a glass electrode, while the dissolved oxygen was determined using HANNA Instruments HI 9143-Dissolved Oxygen meter, Portugal (DO meter). The DRT-100B, HF Scientific Inc., USA was used to measure the turbidity of water samples, whereas Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Electrical Conductivity (EC) and NaCl (3 in 1) were measured by durable and portable TDS/EC/NaCl meter (HANNA Instruments HI 9835 Model, USA).
The treatments were evaluated by measuring the physical and chemical parameters in the grabbed samples just after bringing them to the laboratory and after the addition of macrophyte after one week (168 h). Eutrophic water in each container was sampled 2 times (one on the 1st day and the other on the 7th day) over the 7-day period of culture. The characteristics of the eutrophic water were determined before and after the end of the experiment and the rate of reduction or increment of parameters was recorded.
Results
The effectiveness of water purification by aquatic plants, water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), was tested in the laboratory. The experiment results revealed that these plants are capable of decreasing or increasing all tested indicators of water quality to levels that permit the use of the purified water for different uses except as drinking water. This applies to Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Electrical Conductivity (EC), pH, NaCl percentage and especially Turbidity, which is an important indicator of the amount of suspended sediments in water that can have many negative effects on aquatic life. The water quality parameters of lake waters (Sample A, B, C and D) before and after treatment are presented in Fig. 4A, Fig. 4B, Fig. 4C, Fig. 4D and Table 1, whereas the reference values are given in Appendix I. The percentage removal efficiencies (PRE) of pollutants in the four lakes waters after 168 h of treatment is presented in Table 1. The purification process was monitored by measuring different water parameters that are shown in graphs (4–7). Initially, the color of water in all samples was light greenish brown. After treatment, water in all cultures seemed to be relatively more transparent than the initially collected water (Fig. 3).
Table 1. Mean changes (reduction shows negative %, while increment shows positive %) of physical and chemical parameters for samples A, B, C and D.
| Serial No | Water quality parameters | Sample A | Sample B | Sample C | Sample D |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | pH | 14% | 6% | 33% | 28% |
| 2 | TDS (mg L−1) | −21% | −1% | −36% | −14% |
| 3 | DO (mg L−1) | 1207% | 282% | 3102 | 733% |
| 4 | EC (µS/cm) | −21% | −2% | −36% | −14% |
| 5 | NaCl (%) | −25% | 0% | −93% | −16% |
| 6 | Turbidity (NTU) | −73% | −61% | −34% | −83% |
Results during the experiment revealed considerable removal values of various materials, the highest of which was observed on Day 7 of the experiment, in Gulshan Lake (sample C) followed by Uttara Lake (sample A) and the other samples (sample D and B). The results presented in Table 1 and Fig. 4A, Fig. 4B, Fig. 4C, Fig. 4D showed that pH increased in all the aqueous cultures. Although TDS was best reduced at C, A and then D compared to sample B, while DO increased in sample C and A if compared to sample D and B.
All the parameters after phytoremediation showed considerable percentages of improvements. The reduction of turbidity for the samples were 83%, 73%, 61% and 34% in Hatirjheel Lake, Uttara Lake, Dhanmondi Lake and Gulshan Lake, respectively (Tables 1). The collected water was colored and infused with mildly obnoxious and unpleasant odor during collection, but after phytoremediation, it changed to transparent water that reflects improvement in turbidity.
In the present study, the results also showed that the improvement percent of DO has the highest value at Gulshan Lake (3102%) followed by Uttara (1207%), Hatirjheel (733%) and Dhanmondi (282%). The other parameters like reduction percent of EC has also the highest value at Gulshan Lake (36%) followed by Uttara Lake (21%), Hatirjheel Lake (14%) and the lowest value was at Dhanmondi Lake (2%). Similarly, the TDS reduction has the greatest value in Gulshan Lake (36%), followed by Uttara (21%), Hatirjheel (14%) and the lowest value was at Dhanmondi Lake (1%) which was less polluted than the other three entities.
Like the reduction of EC and TDS, almost the same patterns were found in case of NaCl contents. The highest reduction was found at Gulshan Lake (93%), then Uttara Lake (25%) and Hatirjheel Lake (16%), although no change in concentration of NaCl content was found in Dhanmondi Lake before and after the remediation (Table 1) which could be considered as safe water according to the guidelines of WHO. Where the NaCl level in Dhanmondi Lake was under the permissible level as may be this lake water is well maintained by the authority. In this study, similar to the NaCl, reduction percentages of EC and TDS were also found to have the lowest values in the mentioned lake due to less eutrophication than the others.
In the case of pH, values in all the cultures before phytoremediation were below the neutral level and after treatment, they all maintained the required levels in between (6.7–7.4) except Gulshan Lake, which changed slightly to alkaline level (8.3). In the experiment, the pH level was the highest at Gulshan Lake (33%) followed by Hatirjheel Lake (28%) and Uttara Lake (14%), whereas the lowest increment was observed at Dhanmondi Lake which was 6%. The samples attained the highest percentage of removal at the Gulshan lake reaching a maximum value of approximately 36% (EC), 36% (TDS) and 93% (NaCl) removal compared to the initial values (after 168 h of culture) with the highest increment percent in DO (3102%) and pH (33%).
The values of DO and other indicators of water pollution before and after treatment in the four lake water samples are presented in Fig. 4A, Fig. 4B, Fig. 4C, Fig. 4D and Table 1. Increment percentages were 3102, 1207, 733 and 288% for Gulshan > Uttara > Hatirjheel > Dhanmondi. Untreated Uttara lake waters had a DO level of 0.88 mg/L and after treatment, the observed DO level was increased to 11.5 mg/L. As well, the DO level changed from 2.7 to 10.30 mg/L, 0.58 to 18.57 mg/L and 0.96 to 8.0 mg/L after treatment with water lettuce in Dhanmondi Lake, Gulshan Lake and Hatirjheel Lake, respectively.
The reduction percent of (TDS) of all the lake water samples are presented in (Table 1 and Fig. 4A, Fig. 4B, Fig. 4C, Fig. 4D). Approximately 18% decrease was observed in the total suspended solids in the four treatments (Sample A, B, C, D). Therefore, the aquatic macrophyte treatment system (AMTS) facilitates the removal of dissolved solids by uptake mechanism. The changes of water pH are presented in Fig. 4A, Fig. 4B, Fig. 4C, Fig. 4D. In Dhanmondi Lake, the pH increased slightly (6%) but the increase was more in Gulshan Lake. Where the uptake of carbonate during the algal photosynthesis might be responsible for increasing pH.
In the present experiment, the water qualities in all the four lakes showed noticeable decreases in water turbidity, total dissolved solids, sodium chloride content and electrical conductivity. A decrease in water turbidity was calculated to be more than 60% in most cases in this experiment except the Gulshan Lake, which was 34%. Reduction values were in EC (2–36%), NaCl (16–93%) and TDS (1–36%). The highest EC, NaCl and TDS removal values were found in sample C and A compared to the other two samples B and C.
In addition, in the different eutrophic water, 100% survival rate of the water lettuce was observed. DO increased many folds in all plant cultures. The pH in all cultures of lake waters increased from 6 to 33%. Also, TDS, EC, Turbidity and NaCl were reduced significantly in all treatment cultures.
Generally, the laboratory test in case of Uttara Lake (sample A) confirmed the capacity of the plants to reach and hold reasonably low turbidity levels (64-17 NTU), EC (410–322 µS/cm) and TDS (204–161 mg L−1) and very low levels of NaCl (0.8–0.6%) in all the tests and improving DO (0.88–11.5 mg L−1) and the pH (6.5–7.4) values. In case of Dhanmondi Lake (sample B) showed the capacity of the plants to reach and hold reasonably low levels of turbidity (6.96–2.6 NTU), and considerably low TDS levels (159–157 mg L−1) and EC (319–314 µS/cm) whereas NaCl (0.6–0.6%) remained unchanged but the DO improved (2.7–10.32 mg L−1) with low levels of pH (6.3–6.7) values.
Moreover, EC decreased more in Gulshan Lake after 7 days of treatment. The laboratory-scale tests also confirm the plant capacity to reach and hold reasonably low TDS levels (309–199 mg L−1), turbidity (36.93–24.36 NTU), NaCl (12–0.8%) whereas improving or increasing was observed in the DO (0.58–18.6 mg L−1) & pH (6.3–8.3) values and also a very high decrease in EC (619–397 µS/cm) value was recorded. In case of Hatirjheel Lake (sample D), the laboratory tests also confirmed the plant capacity to reach and hold reasonably low EC levels (961–825 µS/cm) and NaCl (1.9–1.6%), turbidity (411–69 NTU) and very low levels of TDS (479–410 mg L−1) in all the tests with improvement of the DO (0.96–8 mg L−1) and the pH (5.8–7.4) values.
Discussion
The improvement of water quality requires simultaneous the removal of excess nutrients, salts, dissolved or suspended solids, along with adjusting pH, DO, turbidity etc. The implication of the finding of this experiment is consistent with Reyes and Santos, 2019, Ansari et al., 2020, and Nahar (2020) who postulated that aquatic macrophyte can be used as an effective bio-agent for treating polluted water. The results from this study further revealed the plant’s potential as an important aquatic phytoremediator in removing pollutants in eutrophic lakes water and thus improving overall water quality properties across all the tested samples (A–D).
Many aquatic plants have been used for phytoextraction of materials from eutrophic waters by different researchers. Results of the water lettuce (P. stratiotes) showed superior removal efficiency of pollutants across other species, owing to its rapid growth and high potential in biomass yield. The results showed that the water lettuce samples had a leading role in absorbing and tolerating contaminated water. The plants at different cultures absorbed large quantities of salts in their roots, as well as dissolved solids in contaminated water. These results confirm the findings of Rodrigues et al., 2017, Rodrigues et al., 2020, Gupta et al., 2012, Galal and Farahat, 2015, Kumar et al., 2019 who observed that the root system of water lettuce absorbed large quantities of solutes and metals from the contaminated water.
Water lettuce increased the average of DO and pH concentrations in all the treatment cultures. The current findings also confirm prior studies (Alam and Hoque, 2017, Dipu et al., 2011, Mahmood et al., 2005, Kumar et al., 2019), where researchers observed improvements in DO and pH levels by aquatic macrophytes in the polluted waters including also improvements in the physiochemical properties of water.
Moreover, the enhancements in pH and DO, largely was contributed to the absorption of nutrients, metal ions and other salts and photosynthetic activities by plants. The present findings also showed that water lettuce can be a suitable aquatic plant for phytoremediation of the contaminated water bodies in tropical areas, which are consistent with the findings of Mahmood et al., 2005, Awuah et al., 2004, who used water lettuce in their studies, and exhibited a higher solid and salts removal efficiency due to the higher rhizofiltration capacity of its long roots. The present results also revealed that P. stratiotes acts as an efficient phytoremediator for the removal of selected solids and salts. This is in accordance with the results of Galal et al. (2015) who found a corresponding decrease of materials in the contaminated sampled water due to the accumulation of different materials within the plant. The present study also showed promising results that the mentioned macrophyte can be considered for polluted water treatment at larger scales (Gaballah et al., 2019) with an improvement of different physiochemical parameters.
The plant essentially captures the pollutants within its roots and rapidly transports them to their upper body parts, such as branches and leaves (Carolin et al., 2017, Galal et al., 2018). The plant’s growth and thus nutrient removal potential are however affected by a multitude of factors, namely temperature, water salinity and the plant’s physiological limitations. For instance, a high concentration of salts, or low temperature and nutrient concentrations may reduce the removal efficiency of the plant (Lu et al., 2010). The application of aquatic macrophytes like water lettuce helps the remediation of water pollution with different contaminants in eutrophic water as well as functioning as a sink for contaminants (Leung et al., 2017). The study results further revealed that TDS, NaCl and turbidity reduction was higher in sample C which was more eutrophic compared to the other three entities: samples A, B and D. The maximum purification by the growth of the mentioned macrophyte was achieved at the most polluted water of sample C.
As the Gulshan Lake was more polluted, there may be higher photosynthetic activities by phytoplankton, for which the highest amount of DO level was recorded there. Reduced oxygen diffusion into the water due to higher root respiration rates could explain the lower DO amounts in the plant cultures, as the microorganisms present in the water sample uptake oxygen. Different rates of oxygen exchange from aerial tissue into the root zone had primarily contributed to the differences in DO levels among the plant cultures (Sooknah & Wilkie, 2004).
Based on the experiment results, water lettuce is considered as a good remediator for the removal of salts and solids as well as for the improvement of the water quality. The initial pungent odor gradually disappeared during the purification period of the raw water. Moreover, the greenish-brown color turned almost colorless in the final samples of the lake water. It is also evident that the mentioned macrophyte is good tolerant to pollutants as the accumulated solids and salts in its body don’t reflect any visible symptoms of damage, toxicity of body tissues or growth reduction. The plants in the collected samples showed a wide range of tolerance, hence, it can be applied for a large-scale removal of undesirable materials from the large-scale polluted water bodies. In further applications, implementors and policymakers need to be aware of this invasive potential of the macrophytes as all these phytoremediation aspects should be highly controlled to avoid contamination in natural and urban water systems.
Conclusion
The experimental results showed that P. stratiotes (water lettuce) can remediate the eutrophic lake waters in Dhaka City by improving the physical and chemical properties of water. Based on the present results, it could be concluded that P. stratiotes can be utilized as a biological tool in a developing country like Bangladesh for effective treatment of polluted water before being dumped in the ecosystems. Using macrophytes like water lettuce is a cost-effective and resourceful clean-up technique for phytoremediation in polluted aquatic ecosystems and large contaminated areas to maintain their sustainability.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Environmental Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science and Management, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Appendix I Reference parameters for water quality
| Parameters | Reference value |
|---|---|
| pH | 6.5–7.0 |
| EC | <400 μS/cm |
| TDS | <300 mg/l |
| DO | 7–11 mg/l |
| NaCl | <1% |
| Turbidity | <5 NTU |
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